核能利用與核材料

第1 章 核物理與核輻射基礎1.1 原子模型 ·················································································21.1.1 關于原子——古典原子論和四元素論1.1.2 原子模型——原子有核還是無核1.1.3 關于原子核——帶正電的原子核為什么不分崩離析1.1.4 原子核的大小——坐鎮(zhèn)原子中心的原子核1.2 盧瑟福散射實驗 ·············································································41.2.1 盧瑟福——實驗證明原子核的存在1.2.2 關于電子——帶負電荷的粒子1.2.3 正電子——帶正電荷的電子1.2.4 加速器——產(chǎn)生高能粒子的有效手段1.3 核子與核力 ·················································································61.3.1 中子——不帶電荷的粒子1.3.2 原子序數(shù)和質量數(shù)——對元素加以區(qū)別的原子序數(shù)1.3.3 介子——湯川秀樹預言的粒子1.3.4 幻數(shù)（魔法數(shù)）——中子數(shù)和質子數(shù)的微妙平衡1.4 核反應與化學反應 ·············································································81.4.1 核反應——使核發(fā)生變化的反應1.4.2 核裂變的發(fā)現(xiàn)——鈾235 核裂變?yōu)閮蓧K1.4.3 原子核的結合能——為什么核子能緊密相處1.4.4 質量虧損和能量——狹義相對論1.5 質量虧損與核能 ···································································101.5.1 核裂變能量——高能量的發(fā)生1.5.2 化學能與核能——二者來源不同且數(shù)值差異極大1.5.3 核裂變產(chǎn)物是如何產(chǎn)生的——高放射性水平的核廢物1.5.4 同位素——化學性質相同但質量數(shù)不同1.6 裂變、衰變和聚變 ···································································121.6.1 閾值反應——進屋必須跨過門坎1.6.2 半衰期——元素的衰變存在規(guī)則性1.6.3 隧道效應——原子具有穿墻術1.6.4 核聚變與核裂變的不同——輕核聚合與重核分裂1.7 核燃料與核能 ············································································141.7.1 鈾——大可不必“談鈾色變”1.7.2 钚——既有武器級又有反應堆級1.7.3 超鈾元素——應用領域也很廣泛，不可替代的元素1.7.4 氚（超重氫）——混凝土也能透過1.8 放射線 ········································································161.8.1 放射線的種類——來自宇宙的放射線1.8.2 放射線和放射性——放射能力即為輻射源強度1.8.3 由放射線而產(chǎn)生的能量——物質中的能量1.8.4 放射線對身體的影響——對DNA 造成損傷的放射線1.9 放射線的危害 ······································································181.9.1 放射當量劑量和對健康的影響——100mSv 以上即影響健康1.9.2 戈瑞和希沃特——吸收劑量和當量劑量的單位1.9.3ICRP 的建議和推薦——放射線利用的向導1.9.4X 射線與γ 射線的不同——穿透力極強的放射線1.10 吸收劑量與當量劑量 ······································································201.10.1X 射線及γ 射線與電子的反應——電子的彈子房1.10.2天然放射性——日常生活中的放射線1.10.3放射線防護——為保護人類的健康和安全1.10.4放射性活度，吸收劑量和當量劑量——對食品等的限制值1.11 放射線的屏蔽與防護 ····························································221.11.1輻射屏蔽材料——屏蔽材料依射線不同而異1.11.2放射線測量儀的工作原理——利用放射線產(chǎn)生的效應1.11.3超鈾元素的應用——Am-241 用于離子式煙霧探測器1.11.4居里夫人——杰出的女科學家及核科學家一家人定義及名詞術語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第2 章 核能基礎2.1 反應堆是利用核能的有效手段·········································262.1.1 反應堆中發(fā)生的核裂變——如何獲得核裂變能2.1.2 中子能量與核裂變——熱中子更容易引發(fā)核裂變2.1.3 極高密度的能源——來自于愛因斯坦方程E=mc2 的巨大能量輸出2.1.4 鏈式反應——產(chǎn)生核能的反應2.2 如何實現(xiàn)可控鏈式反應··························································282.2.1 原子彈和核反應堆的差別——反應堆要絕對確保不發(fā)生核爆炸2.2.2 臨界——中子吸收和中子生成之間的平衡2.2.3 中子的減速——慢中子容易引發(fā)核裂變2.2.4 慢化劑和冷卻劑——水可以“雙肩挑”2.3 核燃料及核燃料再循環(huán)·································302.3.1 核燃料——核能之源2.3.2 核燃料是如何制造出來的——從礦石到黃餅，再經(jīng)同位素分離2.3.3 核燃料的后處理——燃料的再循環(huán)2.3.4 核燃料循環(huán)——核資源的再利用2.4 反應堆類型（1） ··························································322.4.1 反應堆的種類——形式?jīng)Q定于目的2.4.2 中子能譜與反應堆——表征反應堆特性的指標2.4.3 輕水堆——水既做慢化劑又做冷卻劑2.4.4 改良型輕水堆——更安全、更經(jīng)濟的反應堆2.5 反應堆類型（2） ······························································342.5.1 氣冷堆——到高溫氣冷堆已歷三世2.5.2 钚熱堆——目前最有效的核燃料再循環(huán)法2.5.3 快中子堆——“快”意味著中子的能量高2.5.4 核燃料的燃耗——已“燃燒”的量2.6 反應堆的調節(jié)和控制·················································362.6.1 反應堆的控制——中子數(shù)量是關鍵所在2.6.2 反應性的平衡——有各種各樣的反應性2.6.3 負的反應性反饋——反應堆本身就應具備的控制機構2.6.4 核能世界中的第一次——芝加哥1 號堆和美國在日本投下的兩顆原子彈2.7 核事故（1） ······························································382.7.1 共同培育核電發(fā)展的良好輿論環(huán)境2.7.2 核事故分級標準——核事故從0 ~ 7 級2.7.3 美國三哩島核事故——歷史上最早的核電廠事故2.7.4 前蘇聯(lián)切爾諾貝利核事故——核污染無國界2.8 核事故（2） ···········································································402.8.1 “文殊”二次回路的鈉泄漏事故——安全隱患必須防微杜漸2.8.2JCO 臨界事故——日本最早的臨界事故2.8.3 “3·11”東日本大地震福島核電廠事故——是天災還是人禍2.8.4 反應堆的緊急停堆——插入安全棒2.9 核事故（3） ························································································422.9.1 冷卻用電源的確保——重大事故引發(fā)電源的喪失2.9.2 堆芯熔化，氫爆炸——過熱導致堆芯熔化2.9.3 衰變熱——反應堆的余熱2.9.4 千萬不能發(fā)生再臨界——必須確?？刂葡到y(tǒng)的健全性2.10 重大核事故后對核安全提出更嚴格的要求·················································442.10.1核安全的定義2.10.2核事故所帶來的危害及影響2.10.3修訂核安全法規(guī)，完善核監(jiān)管制度——核安全政策2.10.4中國的核安全觀2.11 如何保證核安全 ···············································································462.11.1防止核劫持——如何防劫防盜2.11.2核電廠從選址到運行——許可證制度2.11.3核電廠的人員許可證——操縱員和高級操縱員2.11.4安全審查和定期檢查——重點確認“停堆”“冷卻”“包容”三個關鍵環(huán)節(jié)2.12 放射性廢物處理 ·········································································482.12.1反應堆周圍的核監(jiān)測——對輻射劑量和劑量的變化進行監(jiān)測2.12.2放射性廢物——需要特殊處理的核垃圾2.12.3反應堆的退役——必須做到善始善終2.12.4反應堆的退役不能一蹴而就2.13 中國的核廢料如何處理與處置··························································502.13.1放射性廢棄物的來源及其特征2.13.2放射性廢棄物處置原則2.13.3放射性廢物的處理流程2.13.4放射性廢物的處理和處置方法定義及名詞術語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第3 章 核能利用中的核材料3.1 核爆炸和核反應堆的原理·····································································543.1.1 天然的核反應堆3.1.2 核爆炸原理3.1.3 核反應堆原理3.1.4 核能利用現(xiàn)狀3.2 鈾濃縮 ·····························································································563.2.1 鈾的富集度與臨界質量3.2.2 鈾濃縮法（1）——氣體擴散法3.2.3 鈾濃縮法（2）——離心分離法3.2.4 鈾濃縮法（3）——原子激光法3.2.5 鈾濃縮法（4）——分子激光法3.3 核反應堆的種類及其結構·········································································583.3.1 核反應堆的種類3.3.2 壓水堆3.3.3 沸水堆3.3.4 輕水堆的安全性3.4 熱中子堆中钚的使用 ·······························································603.4.1 钚熱堆的原理3.4.2MOX 核材料3.4.3 兩種核燃料的使用對比3.4.4 采用MOX 核材料的好處3.5 快中子增殖堆 ···········································································623.5.1 熱中子堆和快中子堆3.5.2 快中子增殖堆與輕水堆的比較3.5.3 利用快中子增殖堆實現(xiàn)钚燃料的增殖3.5.4 快中子增殖堆的結構3.6 核反應堆用材料 ·········································································643.6.1 中子慢化材料3.6.2 中子吸收材料3.6.3 包殼材料和其他結構材料3.6.4 結構材料的輻照損傷3.7 壓水堆和沸水堆用的燃料組件······················································663.7.1 壓水堆燃料組件3.7.2 燃料元件棒3.7.3UO2 燃料芯塊3.7.4 沸水堆燃料組件3.8 核電廠的結構部件及所用材料···························································683.8.1 核電廠的主要部件及功能3.8.2 各類反應堆的主要部件用材料3.9 壓水堆核電廠結構及所用材料················································703.9.1 第一道安全屏障：燃料芯塊二氧化鈾陶瓷晶體（核燃料）3.9.2 第二道安全屏障：燃料包殼3.9.3 第三道安全屏障：壓力容器和一次回路壓力邊界3.9.4 第四道安全屏障：安全殼3.10 核反應堆用石墨 ·············································································723.10.1天然石墨和人造石墨3.10.2高密度、高強度、高純度的“三高”石墨3.10.3核反應堆用石墨的生產(chǎn)工藝3.10.4核石墨的應用3.11 核燃料循環(huán) ·················································································743.11.1核燃料的循環(huán)路徑3.11.2核燃料棒的構造3.11.3核燃料棒的后處理工程3.11.4核燃料棒的安全隱患3.12 輻射能和放射線 ·················································································763.12.1輻射能和放射線的定義3.12.2放射性核素3.12.3放射線對人的危害3.13 “3·11”東日本大地震福島核電廠事故分析·····················································783.13.1強地震緊急停堆后所有水冷系統(tǒng)失靈3.13.2核余熱及衰變產(chǎn)生的熱量足以使燃料元件熔化3.13.3高溫熔體穿透壓力殼3.13.4高放射性核燃料透過壓力殼泄漏到地面、海水乃至空氣中3.14 典型核電廠事故分析 ·············································································803.14.1國際核事故分級3.14.2美國三哩島核事故3.14.3前蘇聯(lián)切爾諾貝利核事故3.15 嚴重事故——燃料熔化·······························································823.15.1何謂嚴重事故3.15.2衰變熱使溫度上升——失水事故3.15.3燃料熔化引起堆芯內(nèi)部重新配置3.15.4形成“殘渣床”和熔池3.16 極嚴重的核事故——燃料泄漏·································································843.16.1“跑離”升溫或“熔斷”升溫3.16.2堆芯熔化3.16.3燃料泄漏3.17 核聚變和聚變能的應用···········································································863.17.1自然的太陽和人造太陽3.17.2核聚變發(fā)電屬于“常閉型”3.17.3激光慣性約束核聚變3.18 托克馬克裝置的主體結構及所用材料·················································883.18.1磁慣性約束核聚變3.18.2托克馬克聚變堆對第一壁材料的要求3.18.3核聚變既涉及又惠及廣泛的技術領域3.18.4核聚變反應堆的結構和聚變能應用前景定義及名詞術語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第4 章 核電廠主要設備及核材料4.1 世界核電發(fā)展歷史和現(xiàn)狀····································································924.1.1 核能的開端與核電的產(chǎn)生4.1.2 從第一代到第四代核電機組4.1.3 世界核電發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀4.1.4 世界核電發(fā)展歸于理性4.2 中國核電發(fā)展后來者居上（1） ···································································944.2.1 中國核電產(chǎn)業(yè)從無到有4.2.2 中國的核能核工業(yè)發(fā)展簡況4.2.3 中國核電發(fā)展的四個階段4.2.4 國家核電核工業(yè)發(fā)展的組織架構4.3 中國核電發(fā)展后來者居上（2） ·····················································964.3.1 中國的核電——后來居上，發(fā)展最快4.3.2 中國的第三代核電4.3.3 中國核電著眼海上4.3.4 加強國際核安全體系，推進全球核安全治理——推進核安全國際合作4.4 不同堆型各有所長（1） ··········································································984.4.1 壓水堆——歷史悠久，技術成熟4.4.2 沸水堆——壓水堆的“孿生姐妹”4.4.3 重水堆——重水作慢化劑，天然鈾作燃料4.4.4 超臨界水冷堆——功率密度和熱效率更高4.5 不同堆型各有所長（2） ····························································1004.5.1 高溫氣冷堆4.5.2 快中子增殖堆的結構4.5.3 快中子增殖堆的發(fā)展狀況4.6 壓水堆電廠的結構和原理································································· 1024.6.1 典型的壓水堆電廠外貌和核電廠的組成4.6.2 壓水堆核電廠原理4.6.3 核島（反應堆廠房）和常規(guī)島（汽輪機廠房）4.6.4 燃料廠房和其他廠房4.7 各類核材料的選材原則·································································· 1064.7.1 選擇核材料的首要標準——滿足功能要求4.7.2 核燃料為什么選擇二氧化鈾而非鈾合金4.7.3 燃料包殼為什么選擇鋯合金4.7.4 作為結構材料的不銹鋼和高鎳合金4.8 核電壓力容器用鋼的選材及演化歷史··············································· 1084.8.1 核電壓力容器用鋼的演化歷史4.8.2SA508 系列鋼中的化學成分和力學性能4.9 SA508 系列鋼中的主要元素及其作用························································ 1104.9.1 對核電壓力容器用鋼的性能要求4.9.2SA508 系列鋼中的主要元素及其作用4.10 核反應堆壓力容器及蒸汽發(fā)生器的制造················································ 1124.10.1核反應堆壓力容器4.10.2壓水堆核電廠核島部分的大型鍛件4.10.3SA508-3 鋼的組織與熱處理4.11 核壓力容器的輻照損傷····································································· 1144.11.1壓力容器鋼輻照脆化4.11.2輻照脆化機制4.11.3高強度低合金鋼大型鍛件中的氫脆現(xiàn)象4.12 核燃料組件和控制棒組件····························································· 1164.12.1上部堆內(nèi)構件和下部堆內(nèi)構件4.12.2核燃料組件的組成及裝料4.12.3控制棒組件及其驅動機構4.12.4材料在核安全中的重要作用4.13 反應堆的四道安全屏障································································· 1184.13.1反應堆的四道安全屏障4.13.2由UO2 粉末制作二氧化鈾陶瓷核燃料芯塊4.13.3作為燃料包殼管的鋯合金4.14 核電廠的主要設備 ··································································· 1204.14.1反應堆冷卻劑泵4.14.2蒸汽發(fā)生器和穩(wěn)壓器4.14.3核電廠用汽輪機和發(fā)電機4.14.4AP1000 機組采用的非能動安全系統(tǒng)4.15 高鐵和核電——“一帶一路”的兩根支柱···················································· 1224.15.12030 年核電裝機容量將達到1.5 億kW4.15.2高鐵與核電是輸出戰(zhàn)略的兩個支柱4.15.3“中國制造2025”關于核電產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展方針4.15.4在海外，到2020 年要完成中國造核電廠6~8 座4.16 中國核電進軍英國和阿根廷································································· 1244.16.1中國廣核集團向英國三個核電廠出資，布拉德韋爾采用“華龍一號”4.16.2與英國、歐洲大陸簽署多項合作協(xié)議4.16.3中國核工業(yè)集團與阿根廷簽署建設“華龍一號”合同4.16.4以羅馬尼亞為據(jù)點，展開向歐洲的核電技術服務4.17 與法、美等國進一步合作································································ 1264.17.1與法國共同實施后處理計劃4.17.2與法國共同開拓世界核能市場4.17.3更新核能合作協(xié)議，美、中延續(xù)蜜月期4.17.4形影相吊的日本定義及名詞術語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻